Expansion of Applicable Sphere: A way to Uniformity
——Compare and Contrast between UNIDROIT and UNCITRAL Conventions
By Dongsheng Lu, Chen Yan

I. Introduction

Financing is paramount for the promotion of commerce. It has been noted that “in developed countries the bulk of corporate wealth is locked up in receivables”. As the economy develops, this wealth increasing is “unlocked by transferring receivables across national borders”. With the prompt and great increases in international trade, receivables financing now plays a more and more important role. Yet under the law of many countries, certain forms of receivables financing are still not recognized. Even transactions are involved in countries where the form of receivables financing is permitted, determining which law governs will be difficult. The disparity among laws of different jurisdiction increases uncertainty in transactions, thus constitutes obstacles to the development of assignments of receivables. To remove such obstacles arising from the uncertainty existing in various legal systems and promote the development of receivables financing cross-boarder, a set of uniform rules in this field is required. The international community has made great efforts in adopting uniform laws. Among those efforts, the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) drafted, on 12 December, 2001, “United Nations Convention on the Assignment of Receivables in International Trade” (hereinafter referred to as the “UNCITRAL Convention”), with its aim to “establish principles and to adopt rules relating to the assignment of receivables that would create certainty and transparency and promote the modernization of the law relating to assignments of receivables”. UNCITRAL is not the first international organization attempting to resolve the problems associated with receivables. As early as in May 1988, the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT) has already adopted a convention known as the “UNIDROIT Convention on International Factoring” (hereinafter referred to as the “UNIDROIT Convention”).

When compare and contrast between the UNIDROIT Convention and the UNCITRAL Convention, one might see a lot of inconsistency in detailed regulations, e.g. sphere of application, relations between parties, priorities, and choice of law, etc. Given the limited space available in this article, the author may only focus on the difference in “sphere of application” of these two conventions, as sphere of application is perhaps the most fundamental issue of a convention.

The purpose of an international convention is to create uniformity in its covered matter, thus the broader a convention’s sphere of application is, the higher could uniformity reach. This article will try to make compare and contrast the sphere of application between the UNIDROIT Convention and the UNCITRAL Convention, illustrate the differences exist between these two conventions, and demonstrate the expansion of sphere of application in the UNCITRAL Convention and its progress on the way to uniformity.

II. Sphere of Application: Subject Matter

As its title indicates, the subject matter of the UNIDROIT Convention is of course international factoring. Article 1(1) says, “this Convention governs factoring contracts and assignments of receivables as described in this Chapter.”

For “factoring contract”, the UNIDROIT Convention provides the following 4 characteristics:

(1) purpose of the contract is to assign receivables;

(2) receivables to be assigned arises from contracts of sale of goods made between the supplier and its customers (debtors), other than those of sale of goods bought primarily for personal, family or household use;

(3) the factor is to perform at least two of the four functions: (i) finance for the supplier; (ii) maintenance of accounts (ledgering) relating to the receivables; (iii) collection of receivables; and (iv) protection against default in payment by debtors;

(4) notice of the assignment of the receivables is to be given to debtors.

As about “assignments of receivables as described in this Chapter”, article 2 (1) describes assignments of receivables as assignment of receivables pursuant to a factoring contract.

Factoring is just a subset of the receivables financing, and perhaps the oldest and most basic one. Besides factoring, receivables financing still entail the following forms,

(1) Forfeiting, similar to factoring, involves the purchase or discounting of documentary receivables (promissory notes, for example) without recourse to the party from whom the receivables are purchased;

(2) Refinancing, also known as secondary financing, involves the subsequent assignment of receivables. In its basic form, one bank or financier will assign to another bank its interest, with the potential for further assignment;

(3) Securitization, in which both marketable (for example, trade receivables) and non-marketable (consumer credit card receivables) asset cash flows are repackaged by a lender and transferred to a lender-controlled company, which will issue securities, sell and then use the proceeds to purchase the receivables;

(4) Project Finance, in which repayment of loans made by banks or financiers to project contractors for the financing of projects are secured through the future revenues of the project.

The first draft of the UNCITRAL Convention has stated to cover factoring, forfeiting, refinancing, securitization and project finance. Somehow, the working group decides that rather than emphasize the form in which the receivables appear, it would instead concentrate on the way in which the receivables might be transferred (contractual or non-contractual) and the purpose of the transaction (for financing or non-financing purposes). It decides the contractual receivables and assignment made to secure financing and other related services would be covered. The non-contractual receivables such as insurance and tort receivables, deposit bank accounts, or claims arising by operation of law seems are not within the ambits of the UNCITRAL convention.

III. Sphere of Application: Special Requirements

Both of the conventions contain a series of requirements. Only when those requirements are satisfied, could the convention be applied. The higher and stricter the requirements are, the smaller the chance to apply the convention is.

a) Internationality requirement

Both the two conventions indicate their sphere of application is of internationality requirement, but the same word in these two conventions has different legal meaning. The internationality requirement of UNIDROIT Convention is exclusively based upon the parties to the underlying contract, i.e. the contract of sale of goods (the supplier and the debtor) having their place of business in different countries. In other words, where the receivables arise from a contract of sale of goods between a supplier and a debtor whose places of business are in the same State, the UNIDROIT Convention could not apply, no matter the following assignment of receivables is to assignee in the same or different State. Thus leaving the international assignment of domestic receivables untouched. The problem, at its simplest, is twofold: first, inconsistency. For instance, in the case where a bulk assignment is made and where part of the receivables are domestic (supplier and debtor are in the same State) and part are international (supplier and debtor are in different State), if the supplier assigns the receivables to a party which is located in another State, the bulk assignment between the same supplier and the same assignee will be governed by two sets of laws and regulations: the portion of international receivables may be governed by the UNIDROIT Convention while the domestic one will be left to the jurisdiction of certain domestic law.

Secondly, leaving the international assignment of domestic receivables to the jurisdiction of various law systems of different States can make “commercial practice uncertain, time-consuming and expensive”. The assignee of receivables from a foreign State may not know which State’s law governs the transaction, and, if the law of the assignor’s State applies, the assignee’s rights would be subject to the vagaries of that foreign law. This no doubt would greatly impede the development of such transaction.

安徽省合肥市人民政府


合肥市《军人抚恤优待条例》实施细则

1998年3月30日政府令第61号




第一章　总 则
　　
　　第一条　为了做好军人抚恤优待工作，维护和保障优抚对象的合法权益,支持军队建设,根据国务院《军人抚恤优待条例》、《安徽省〈军人抚恤优待条例〉实施办法》和《安徽省拥军优属若干规定》，结合本市实际情况，制定本细则。　　
　　第二条　军人抚恤优待工作实行国家、社会、群众三结合的制度，保障军人的抚恤优待与全市经济发展相适应,使抚恤优待标准与人民群众的生活水平同步提高。
　　凡在本市行政区域内的国家机关、社会团体、企业事业单位和个人，均应按照本细则履行职责和义务。　　
　　第三条　市民政局是本市军人抚恤优待工作的主管机关。县、区民政部门负责本行政区域内军人抚恤优待工作;乡镇、街道应加强对拥军优属工作的领导。国家机关、社会团体和企业事业单位应当建立健全拥军优属组织和工作制度，并接受当地民政部门的指导和检查。 　　

第二章　死亡抚恤
　　
　　第四条　现役军人死亡，根据死亡性质确定为革命烈士、因公牺牲军人、病故军人。其中定为革命烈士的，由其家属所在地市、县民政部门按下列顺序发给《革命烈士证明书》：
　　(一)有父母(抚养人)无配偶的，发给父母(抚养人)；
　　(二)有配偶无父母(抚养人)的，发给配偶；
　　(三)有父母(抚养人)、配偶的，由双方商定。协商不成的，发给父母(抚养人)。
　　(四)没有父母(抚养人)、配偶的，发给子女；
　　(五)没有父母(抚养人)、配偶、子女的，发给未满十八周岁的弟妹。　　无上述亲属的，不发。　　
　　第五条　现役军人死亡，由其家属所在地市、县民政部门按国家规定发给其家属一次性抚恤金。　　
　　第六条　革命烈士、因公牺牲军人、病故军人的家属,符合下列条件之一的，经当地县(区)民政部门批准，享受定期抚恤金：
　　(一)父母(抚养人)、配偶无劳动能力和生活收入的，或虽有一定生活收入，但低于当地人均收入
　　(二)子女未满十八周岁，或虽满十八周岁因读书或伤残无生活来源的；
　　(三)弟妹未满十八周岁，且是军人生前供养的。　　定期抚恤金的标准不得低于省民政厅、财政厅的规定。　　
　　第七条　领取定期抚恤金的人员迁移时，迁移当年的定期抚恤金由户口迁出地县(区)民政部门发给；从
　　第二年起由户口迁入地县(区)民政部门发给。 　 　　

第三章　伤残抚恤
　　
　　第八条　现役军人致残，由军队规定的审批机关在医疗终结后负责评定伤残等级，发给《革命伤残军人证》。退役后一般不再办理。　　
　　第九条　退役后没有参加工作的革命伤残军人，由当地县(区)民政部门发给伤残抚恤金；退役后参加工作或者享受离休、退休待遇的，发给伤残保健金。
　　退役在乡的特等、一等革命伤残军人，由当地县(区)民政部门加发护理费。其中享受离休、退休待遇的，由发给离休、退休金的单位加发。
　　伤残抚恤金、伤残保健金和护理费的标准，按国家有关规定执行。　　
　　第十条　退役的特等、一等革命伤残军人，要求回原籍的，由原居住地县(区)人民政府负责妥善安置。由农村迁往城镇的，其配偶和未满十八周岁子女( 包括已满十八周岁的在校学生)可随同迁移，由安置地市、县公安、 粮食部门负责办理落户和粮油供应手续。　　
　　第十一条　退役的特等、一等革命伤残军人，因伤残后遗症需要经常治疗或生活需人护理的，由县(区)人民政府接收安置后，经本人申请和省民政厅批准，可进省荣军康复医院休养。　　
　　第十二条　退役后没有参加工作的革命伤残军人因伤残需到外地安装假肢，或因伤口复发需到外地治疗，经当地县(区)民政部门批准,所需的交通费、住宿费和伙食费，由民政部门给予适当补助;退役后参加工作或者享受离休、退休待遇的，由其所在单位按公(工)伤待遇办理。　　
　　第十三条　退役的革命伤残军人迁移时，迁移当年的伤残抚恤金或保健金由户口迁出地县(区)民政部门发给；从
　　第二年起由户口迁入地县(区)民政部门发给。　　
　　第十四条　因战致残的革命伤残军人，在评残发证后一年内因伤口复发死亡的，由民政部门按照革命烈士抚恤规定予以抚恤，其家属享受革命烈士家属待遇。一年后因伤口复发死亡的，原领取伤残抚恤金的，由民政部门按照因公牺牲军人的抚恤规定予以抚恤，其家属享受因公牺牲军人家属待遇；原领取伤残保健金的，由其生前所在单位按照因公(工)死亡人员抚恤规定予以抚　　
　　第十五条　因公致残的革命伤残军人，在评残发证后因伤口复发死亡，原领取伤残抚恤金的，由民政部门按照因公牺牲军人的抚恤规定予以抚恤，其家属享受因公牺牲军人家属待遇；原领取伤残保健金的，由其生前所在单位按照因公(工)死亡人员的抚恤规定予以抚恤。　　
　　第十六条　因病死亡的革命伤残军人，原领取伤残抚恤金的，由民政部门增发半年伤残抚恤金，作为一次性补助，其中因战因公致残的特等、一等革命伤残军人家属，享受病故军人家属待遇；原领取伤残保健金的，由其生前所在单位按照病故人员的抚恤规定予以抚恤。　　
　　第十七条　革命伤残军人死亡后,停发伤残抚恤金(保健金)和护理费。原领取伤残抚恤金的， 由民政部门按照当地国家机关工作人员丧葬补助标准发给丧葬补助费；原领取伤残保健金的，由其生前所在单位按规定发给丧葬补 -5- 助费。　　
　　第十八条　退役革命伤残军人死亡后，其伤残抚恤证由民政部门注销，按照因公牺牲军人或病故军人对待的，由民政部门在伤残抚恤证上注明，作为其家属享受有关待遇的凭证，不再发给《革命军人因公牺牲证明书》或《革命军人病故证明 　　 　

第四章　优　　待
　　
　　第十九条　各县(区)政府应根据当地经济发展和人民生活水平提高的程度，逐步提高定期抚恤金和定期补助金标准(上级主管部门调整标准的除外)。　　
　　第二十条　优待金实行社会统筹，逐步形成非农人口与农业人口共同承担拥军优属责任的格局。　　
　　第二十一条　义务兵在服役期间的优待，按《合肥市义务兵征集、优待和退伍安置办法》中的有关规定执行。义务兵入伍前为在职职工(含合同制工人)的，其所在单位不得以任何理由不履行以对义务兵的优待责任。　　
　　第二十二条　对被授予荣誉称号和荣立一、二、三等功的现役军人，当地政府应到军人家庭进行慰问，并分别按不低于1000元、500元、200元的标准奖励其家属。　　
　　第二十三条　凡属本市农业户口的革命烈士家属、因公牺牲军人家属、病故军人家属、义务兵家属、革命伤残军人、在乡老复员军人和带病回乡退伍军人，按下列原则实行现金优待。优待金由县、区或乡、镇人民政府统筹、平衡负责：
　　(一)对义务兵家属应普遍发放优待金，优待金标准不低于上年本地农民人均纯收入。
　　(二)对革命烈士家属、因公牺牲军人家属、病故军人家属和在乡老复员军人(含红失人员)的优待面不低于2/3，优待金标准不低于上年本地农民人均纯收入的2/3；
　　(三)对革命伤残军人的优待面不低于1/2， 优待金标准不低于上年本地农民人均纯收入的1/2；　
　　(四)对退伍军人优待面不低于1.5％， 优待金标准不低于上年本地农民人均纯收入的1/3。
　　优待金应做到当年“八一”前全部或大部分兑现，最迟不得超过当年10月底。　　
　　第二十四条　未经优抚对象本人同意，任何部门都不得擅自扣留或代扣优待金，代办养老和医疗保险等。　　
　　第二十五条　孤老优抚对象要求进入敬老院和社会福 -7- 利院的，敬老院和社会福利院应优先予以接收。　　
　　第二十六条　在乡老复员军人和已故在乡退伍红军老战士的配偶，符合规定条件的经当地县(区)民政部门批准,给予定期定量补助。　　
　　第二十七条　农村优抚对象按政策应予减免的义务工、劳动积累工以及各项提留，均由乡(镇)人民政府负责统一安排，并落实到户。　　
　　第二十八条　对二等乙级以上(含二等乙级)革命伤残军人应实行公费医疗，医疗费不得包干给个人。在乡三等革命伤残军人因伤口复发所需医疗费，由当地县(区)民政部门解决；因病所需医疗费本人支付有困难的，由当地县(区)民政部门酌情给予补助。领取伤残保健金的革命伤残军人享受其所在单位因公(工)伤残职工相同的医疗、劳保福利待遇。　　
　　第二十九条　革命烈士、因公牺牲军人、病故军人和现役军人的家属以及带病回乡的复员退伍军人，不享受公费医疗待遇的，因病治疗无力支付医疗费，由卫生部门酌情予以减免。　　逐步建立初级优抚合作医疗制度，切实解决革命烈士家属、因公牺牲军人家属、病故军人家属、革命伤残军人和在乡复员军人的医疗难问题。　　
　　第三十条　企业事业单位在调整劳动组合和人员结构时,对现役军人配偶、烈属、革命伤残军人应当予以照顾。对企事业单位转产、破产、兼并、重组等下岗的现役军人配偶、烈属、革命伤残军人，由主管部门和劳动行政部门负责予以培训，并优先推荐再就业。　　
　　第三十一条　现役军人配偶在工作单位分配住房时，享受本单位双职工待遇，并在同等条件下优先；无工作单位而住房困难的现役军人配偶，当地房管部门应当按照住房特困户予以优先解决。　　义务兵服役期间，地方分配住房时应将他们计入家庭人口。家居农村的优抚对象无房、缺房时，当地乡(镇)应优先为其划分宅基地。烈属、伤残军人、在乡老复员军人住房的确困难的，通过自力更生、集体帮助和当地人民政府必要补助的办法妥善解决。　　
　　第三十二条　革命烈士、因公牺牲军人、病故军人的子女、弟妹以及特等、一等、二等革命伤残军人子女自愿参军又符合征兵条件的，当地人民武装部可优先批准一人入伍。　　
　　第三十三条　各级人民政府和有关部门应从工商管理、税收、资金、物资、技术、信息等方面，大力扶持尚未脱贫的优抚对象发展生产，勤劳致富。　　
　　第三十四条　乡镇、街道及企事业单位的基层组织，应建立群众性的拥军优属服务组织，为部队和优抚对象提供服务，对孤老优抚对象实行包户服务。服务性的窗口单位应普遍设立拥军优属服务窗口，或挂牌注明拥军优属服务的内
　　
第五章　奖励和处罚
　　
　　第三十五条　在抚恤优待工作中成绩显著的单位和个人，由各级人民政府给予表彰和奖励。　　
　　第三十六条　违反本细则规定的单位，市及县(区)民政部门有权对单位负责人和直接责任人提出批评，责令纠正，或提请有关部门给予行政处分。　　
　　第三十七条　优抚对象被判处徒刑、剥夺政治权利或者被通缉期间，停止抚恤和优待。服刑期满，恢复政治权利之后，凭刑满释放通知书，经县(区)民政部门审核批准后，可以恢复抚恤和优待。犯罪情节特别严重的，经省人民政府批准，取消其抚恤和优待。 　　 　

第六章　附　　则
　　
　　第三十八条　因战伤亡的民兵、民工和因参加县(区)以上人民武装部门或预备役部队组织的军事训练伤亡的人员，有工作单位的，由其所在单位按因公(工)伤亡予以抚恤或补助；无工作单位的，由民政部门参照本办法办理。　　
　　第三十九条　本办法由市民政局负责解释。　　
　　第四十条　本办法自发布之日起施行。